The types of images to use in advertising for more emotional activation. A study using neuromarketing

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3956090/v1

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The types of images to use in advertising for more emotional activation. A study using neuromarketing

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3956090/v1

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This article evaluates, using neuromarketing, the arousal of various types of images that could be used in static marketing communication. An experiment was conducted in which 20 images were shown. The galvanic response of the skin, heart rate, and temperature were recorded. The study measured the activations generated by each type of image using the psychophysiological variable that best correlated with arousal, namely temperature. Images of type 1, such as smiling children, butterflies, flowers, and landscapes, were the most relaxing, while images of type 2, such as erotic images and parachuting, generated the highest level of arousal. The second level of arousal is generated by type 3, which are those depicting bodies that have been attacked, buried, disfigured, or shot. The third level of arousal generated is type 4, which are images of an individual who are imprisoned, drunk, beggars, or in a pool in very bad condition.

MANAGEMENT SLANT

● It is essential for marketing and advertising professionals to ensure that the level of emotional activation generated by communication pieces is adequate.

● There are some neuromarketing researches evaluating the arousal of images in advertising, but no one has verified the correlation level between the psychophysiological variable used and the emotional activations. Best psychophysiological variable for measuring the emotional arousal of static advertising through neuromarketing is the temperature, at least better than GSR and HR.

● Type of images that generates the most excitement measured with neuromarketing are the erotic images and extreme sport (parachuting). With the traditional method were the images of shooting, dead and disfigured and bloody people.

Marketing

consumer neuroscience

neuromarketing

marketing

advertising

emotion

arousal

The Importance of Neuromarketing

For many years, communication and marketing professionals have attempted to assess the effectiveness of communication by using market research techniques to evaluate advertising. These stimuli have traditionally been assessed using interviews, questionnaires and other methods (Keller & Kotler, 2012).

At times, desired results are not achieved due to various issues. One such issue is that emotionally charged questions may lead to participants being unsure of how to answer (Hernández, 2014), or they may provide false information (Huelva & Chaves, 2002). Additionally, lack of involvement may result in participants not making an effort to seek the correct answer.

Neuroscience and its techniques can aid creators in understanding the preferences of viewers (Carballido, 2009). According to Shimamura (2013), experimental research in neuroscience analyzes the consumer's experience through systematic, objective, and replicable measurements.

Recent advancements in neuroscience and technology have paved the way for a new approach to market research. Neuromarketing, which utilizes traditional neuroscience techniques to evaluate marketing decisions such as communication, products, and other variables, has emerged as a result (McClure et al., 2004).

It is possible to define Neuromarketing as “the application of neurosciences in order to facilitate and improve the creation, communication and exchange of actions, services and products of value among groups and individuals who need and want to satisfy their needs through these exchanges” (González-Morales, 2020, p.3).

Emotion Generated and Advertising Effectiveness

Neuromarketing utilizes neuroscience equipment to record and measure brain activity and psychophysiological variables related with the emotional states. The emotional states are associated with attention and memorization, and they are analyzed based on two emotional dimensions: arousal and valence (González-Morales et al., 2020; González-Morales, 2018).

Consumer behavior is largely based on memory, and people may only have a limited understanding of why they purchase certain products. This process is not necessarily a conscious action, although it may involve some level of reasoning (Lindstrom, 2007).

In general, human behavior is partly driven by memory, which efficiently processes large volumes of information. Without this ability, humans would be overwhelmed by incoming sensory information. However, individuals have the ability to think about the information they receive. There are two types of mental processing: intuitive, fast, and autonomous (System 1) and thoughtful, slower, and deliberate (System 2) (Kahneman, 2011).

Neuromarketing allows researchers to apply neuroscientific methods to test what drives consumer decisions implicitly, unconsciously and subconsciously by studying System 1.

However, it is important to note that the second system should not be dismissed as it works in conjunction with the first system (Kahneman, 2011).

There is a third system in the buying action, which thinks about the future of this decision (De Brigard & Parikh, 2019). It can be influenced by advertising, but is not possible to evaluate with neuromarketing, through a basic experiment. Although, it could be interesting to understand the three systems (Niedziela & Ambroze, 2020).

The perception of sensory information from marketing stimuli triggers a chain reaction in neural receptors, leading to conscious or/and unconscious changes in the environment and subsequent impressions in the brain. The brain processes the received signals, creating information that it analyzes before deciding on behavior. In order for a decision to be made, this information must be related to memory (Kahneman, 2011).

As previously mentioned, memory is crucial in decision-making, and emotions, including valence and arousal, significantly impact the formation of memory. Therefore, studying emotions is vital in marketing strategies to increase efficiency of the advertising.

The valence/arousal scheme is used to define emotion in the framework of central affect. Core affect is a widely used theoretical framework for studying emotion physiologically. Both valence and arousal have a significant impact on decision-making, behavior and the memory, including purchasing decisions (Thomson y Coates, 2020; Barret, 2017; Thomson, 2020).

There is therefore an understanding of the importance of emotion in advertising effectiveness. However, there is no direct correlation between emotional activation and sales performance, as there are many other factors that have an impact on this, although well designed advertising is fundamental.

Neuromarketing and Advertising Effectiveness

As the importance of the emotions associated with a product, advertising or brand in the efficacy of the advertising become increasingly known, use of neuromarketing to evaluate marketing decisions is increasing. However, purchasing decisions also are influenced by logical considerations.

As previously explained, this emotion is defined by the core affect framework, which uses a two-dimensional model to measure valence (approach or avoidance) and arousal (intensity of approach or avoidance). The role of emotions' valence and arousal in advertising effectiveness is fundamental, as they are linked to attention, memory formation, and attitude formation. It has a significant impact on how consumers comprehend, process messages, and alter their cognitive response (Morin, 2011).

Therefore, assessing arousal is crucial in determining the effectiveness of marketing strategies.

Researchers have examined the arousal using peripheral psychophysiological measures, mainly skin conductance (GSR) and heart rate (HR) (Bellman et al., 2019).

González-Morales et al (2024) have done a comprehensive review of neuromarketing experiments applied to communication, published between 2001 and 2020 in the WOS database. This article provides information on peripheral meters research, including the use of Galvanic Skin Response (GSR or EDA) and heart rate (HR or ECG).Thus, it can know the importance of neuromarketing in advertising efficacy

Necessary advancements in the study of arousal through the use of neuromarketing

However, none of the research cited in González-Morales et al. (2024) addresses the level of validity of these psychophysiological variables in evaluating arousal (Baraybar-Fernández, 2017; Vecchiato et al., 2014; Clark, 2018; Breninger, & Kaltenbacher, 2020; Monge-Benito et al., 2019). All of this research has been done with GSR and HR to evaluate emotional activation, but no-research has realized a study of correlation between these psychological variables and arousal.

It is important to bear in mind that we are in the early stages of establishing the theoretical foundations that will underpin neuromarketing as a strong discipline (Varan et al., 2015).

This research is important because researchers and practitioners often interchangeably use different physiological variables to measure emotional responses to ads, without understanding which one works best for each different stimuli.

In neuromarketing researches, the GSR and the HR are commonly used as psychophysiological variables to evaluate arousal. However, it has not been mentioned by advertising researcher’s community whether there is a really high correlation between these variables and the level of activation. Furthermore, electroencephalographs include these two variables, it could be suggested that they are used because of the instruments' capabilities rather than their effectiveness.

This research distinguishes itself from previous studies by considering temperature as a potential indicator of emotional activation of advertising. Additionally, prior to evaluating the images, a correlation study of different variables has determined the psychophysiological variable that best correlates with emotional activation in static images (González-Morales, 2024), which can be used in static advertising.

Purpose of this paper

Unlike previous articles, this study considers the correlation between activation of images measured using traditional scientific methods (although not ideal, it is the only one possibility) and data collected from three psychophysiological variables: temperature, galvanic skin response, and heart rate, done by González-Morales (2024). Following the correlation study, the psychophysiological variables with the highest correlation were used to evaluate the arousal generated by the images.

Many professionals have been asking the same question since advances in neuroscience have been accepted in the fields of marketing and communication. What is the best psycho-physiological variable to measure emotional activation?

Determining estimators of arousal is a complex task. Experimental researchers in the field of psychophysiology of emotion have argued for and against certain variables, depending on the type of stimulus. It is logical to consider that the correlation between emotional activation and the variable that best correlates with it, depends on the type of stimulus. Therefore, the study of the psychophysiological variables that best evaluate each type of stimulus is one of the next steps in the development of knowledge in this discipline.

We're starting a new scientific discipline that needs to be explored to master it. Having begun by identifying psychophysiological variables related to arousal, we now need to determine the best variable to assess emotional activation in static advertising. In this direction González-Morales (2024) showed temperature as the best variable to evaluate the arousal of static stimuli.

The article differs from existing ones in that it is based on a previous correlation study to determine the psychophysiological variable that should be used to evaluate static images for use in advertising, prior to evaluating the arousal generated by different types of static images.

Therefore, after knowing the optimal variable, it was possible to evaluate the activation generated by the static images more effectively. This allowed for a more reliable and precise investigation to be carried out. In the context of advertising and marketing, there were no previous comparisons of this kind of correlation. Furthermore, this article only deals with the evaluation of still pictures used in static forms of communication. The article has been planned to give enough time for Kahneman's System 2 to take effect.

After that, the arousal of different kinds of images have been measured.

Basic principles of neuromarketing in arousal measurement

The advertising stimuli could generate emotions, which is possible to define with arousal and valence.

Valence is not the aim of this article, this article aims to study the arousal.

Arousal is a physiological and psychological process. It ranges from deep sleep to intense arousal (Pérez-Córdoba, 2011). As arousal increases, there may be an increase in heart rate, decreased temperature in the phalanx, increased skin conductance, and increased stress and anxiety (Olmedilla et al, 2002). The neurovegetative Autonomous Nervous System (ANS) is activated by anxiety. The increase in arousal results in psychophysiological responses associated with stress and anxiety, such as an elevated heart rate, decreased peripheral temperature, and increased skin conductance (Estrada, 2013).

González-Morales (2024) conducted an experiment to evaluate the correlation between various psychophysiological variables. The study found that temperature had the strongest correlation with emotional activation generated by images that could be used in static marketing communication. This research contributes to the theoretical corpus of the discipline. Based on this information, we evaluated the activation generated by each type of image. Although, the theoretical framework for effectively using emotions in advertising with neuromarketing has not yet been completely developed.

As a general rule, companies should aim to create a positive emotional valence response and high level of arousal with their products, brands, and advertising in order to generate favorable memories and perceptions.

A prevalent discovery in the literature on emotion and memory is that memory is improved for stimuli that are positively or negatively valenced compared to those that are neutral. Libkuman et al. (2004) tested the hypothesis that post-stimulus elaboration causes these effects.

Hypothesis

Images with high arousal and positive valence, such as erotic and those depicting high-risk sports like skydiving, elicit greater arousal than those with high arousal and negative valence, such as images of hunters killing animals, gunshots, disfigured and bloody faces, and dead people.

- Images with low arousal and positive valence, such as children smiling, butterflies perched on flowers, and colorful landscapes, induce greater relaxation than images with low arousal and negative valence, such as abandoned and dirty facilities, intoxicated or imprisoned individuals, and barren landscapes.

Material

Psychophysiological variables were recorded using equipment that measured galvanic skin resistance (GSR), heart rate (HR) and temperature (T) using electrodes and a thermistor, initially in González-Morales (2024).

Castellar et al. (2001) did a study in Spain with a conventional scientific approach to the evaluation of the emotional arousal of images in the 'International System of Affective Images' (IAPS). The experiment was carried out in Spain, so it is useful to compare the arousal results of their study with the arousal values obtained by measuring the psychophysiological variables used in our experiment. Our research was carried out in Spain, which makes this correlation possible. For this study, an equal number of very high and very low arousal images were selected. The images were balanced in terms of valence. The sample includes the ten most arousing images and the ten least arousing images, with very positive and very negative valence each one. Table 1 shows the number of images in the IAPS and the arousal level in parenthesis taken from Castelar (2001).

Table 1

Image number in the IAPS and arousal values.

Source: González-Morales (2024)
Low arousal / Positive valence	High arousal / Positive valence	High arousal / Negative valence	Low arousal / Negative valence
Image1: 1603 (3.71)	Image6: 4658 (7.44)	Image11: 2688 (7.50)	Image16: 2722 (4.62)
Image2: 1604 (3.26)	Image7: 4669 (7.21)	Image12: 3004.1 (7.70)	Image17: 2753 (4.78)
Image3: 2222 (3.62)	Image8: 4670 (7.37)	Image13: 3068 (8.04)	Image18: 5120 (4.22)
Image4: 2304 (3.71)	Image9: 4672 (7.04)	Image14: 3069 (8.20)	Image19: 9331 (4.28)
Image5: 5811 (3.17)	Image10: 8185 (7.15)	Image15: 3261 (7.68)	Image20: 9360 (3.45)

In this experiment, half of the highly arousing images were selected on the basis of very positive valence, while the other half were selected on the basis of very negative valence. To ensure balance, the same selection process was used for the low arousal pictures. The study does not investigate the role of valence.

It is important to note that there are various specialties of marketing and communication, which are utilized by different sectors of society, such as political, commercial, governmental, sporting, and service sectors. The experiment employs images depicting different objects, landscapes, and personal situations. These images can be effectively used for marketing purposes in social media, films, political, commercial, tourist, and other types of advertising messages. Some may consider certain images inappropriate to use in marketing communications. However, a variety of marketing disciplines, including political, social, organizational and even de-marketing propaganda, can incorporate images of half-buried bodies, disfigured faces and torsos, and firearm deaths. As a result, marketing professionals are well aware that the use of such imagery can be effective in some circumstances, although it is essential that they comply with ethical principles, the law and good communications practice. The use of imagery depends on variables including objectives, professional ingenuity, creative imagination and compliance with legal and ethical standards in each country.

It was important that this collection of images had both high and low levels of activation, with each image having a strong positive or negative valence in order to balance the images in terms of valence. As stated above, images of neutral valence do not generate any excitement. Images used in each type are described in Table 2.

Table 2

Description of images included in the different types of images.

Source: Own production
Type 1: Low arousal and valence positive.	Image1: Shows a butterfly perched on a yellow flower. Image2: Shows a butterfly perched on a pink flower. Image3: Depicts two young children, aged 4 or 5, excitedly looking at a book. Image4: Shows a little girl with a smiling expression, resting her head on her hand. Image5: Shows a landscape featuring a flowering tree with white and lilac flowers.
Type 2: High arousal and valence positive.	Image6: Depicts a couple lying naked in bed, with the man kissing the woman's abdomen. Image7: Shows a naked couple lying in bed and kissing on the lips. Image8: Shows a couple embracing in an erotic position, he has his hands on her buttocks. Image9: Depicts a naked couple in bed, with the man kneeling and his hands behind. The woman places his leg over his abdomen and kisses his lips. Image10: Shows skydivers in a free jump holding hands.
Type 3: High arousal and valence negative.	Image11: Hunters shooting a polar bear on the ice. Image12: Shows a child buried face up with their face unearthed. Image13: Depicts a person lying in bed with their face torn from a gunshot, with blood on their face, pillow, and the wall. Image14: A woman appears in a bed with her face disfigured and bloody, possibly from a shot to the face Image15: A woman's chest is seen raw and a lump of raw flesh is seen next to her.
Type 4: Low arousal and valence negative.	Image16: The lock of a cell and the hands of a person, one holding onto a bar and the other with a cigarette. Image17: Man drinking from a gin bottle, bad hairstyle and out of focus. Image18: Leaf litter and dried berries. Image19: Tramp with a cart full of things he has collected. Image20: Empty and unpainted concrete pool (abandoned).

In type 1 are imagen which transmit calm and well being, smiling children, butterflies, flowers and landscapes.

In type 2 are imagen which transmit high arousal and well been, couples in erotic positions and risky sports, but pleasant for those who like to feel freedom.

In type 3 are imagen which transmit high arousal and avoidance, bodies attacked, buried, disfigured, and shot.

In type 4 are imagen which transmit low arousal and avoidance, imprisoned, drunk, dry tree leaves on the ground, beggar and pool in very bad condition.

Method

This research was conducted after one first research realized by González-Morales (2024), who determined the psychophysiological variable that best correlated with the arousal of the static images.

In the research realized by González-Morales (2024) a cross-sectional quasi-experiment was conducted with three different dependent variables: Heart Rate (HR), Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), and Peripheral Temperature of the Skin (T).

The experimental task consisted of the viewing of 20 images, consisting of 5 images each of high arousal/high valence, high arousal/low valence, low arousal/high valence, and low arousal/low valence.

The study involved observing twenty previously unseen images displayed on a screen for seven seconds each. Prior to this, a grey screen was displayed for twenty-one seconds, followed by alternating the stimulus images with a neutral grey image for seven seconds to stabilize psychophysiological variables, as recommended by Chang et al. (2013).

Following the manufacturer's instructions, the three dependent variables were recorded using the device's software.

Psychophysiological variables recorded while viewing the visual stimuli were each correlated with arousal previously calculated by Castellar et al. (2001) for each of the selected images, in a standard correlational study in which participants were exposed to images with predetermined levels of arousal and their psychophysiological signals were recorded.

The study was conducted on a non-probabilistic sample of 30 individuals with an average age of 23 years and a standard deviation of 7.297 (age range 19–49 years) to examine bivariate correlation. The snowball methodology was used to obtain the sample.

The experiment was designed in a general manner, without taking into account the gender of the participants, although the sample consisted of a similar proportion of males and females. The study did not investigate potential gender differences as it was not the focus of the research.

Participants received the 'Information Sheet for Participating Subjects' and signed an 'Informed Consent Form' prior to the study. They were then instructed to view the images on the screen while remaining still.

The study recorded the values of the variables under investigation.

The average values for each individual image were calculated using the data, followed by computing the average of all individuals' values for each image. Correlations with the arousal scores of each image were then examined using these averages.

In order to determine which variable best correlates with arousal, the correlations between the means of each psychophysiological variable and the Castellar et al. (2001) rating are analyzed.

In the actual research, the measure of arousal for each type of image was the result of a calculation using the psychophysiological variable more adequate from the values obtained in the same recordings as in the previous research.

In this experiment, the average of the values recorded during the entire visualization time was considered the best option to avoid biases that could be caused by different situations, such as the subject thinking about something else or a different type of problem after looking at the stimulus.

An adequate period of time was needed to stabilize and measure the variables that would be correlated with arousal, as these variables were not static in time and in some cases immediate. In this case, we took measurements throughout the entire period of exposure to the stimulus, excluding any changes induced by the indicated problems and allowing us to reflect and apply Kahneman's System 2.

The increase in volunteer participants' arousal with each image is considered irrelevant, as the aim of this study is not to evaluate the arousal produced by different independent images, and therefore these increases were not included in order not to confuse the readers and to maintain clarity. We also did not use differences between initial and final scores across trials or between trials, since these may have biased results.

The recording was conducted at a suitable temperature of approximately 21ºC. Other people and any potential sources of interference were eliminated from the laboratory to reduce noise.

The arousal values obtained by Castellar et al. (2001) of the selected images for this experiment and mean values of T registered by González-Morales (2024) during the experiment are presented in Table 3; also it is possible to see the arousal average of arousal and temperature each type of image. The scatter diagrams are represented in Figs. 1.

Table 3

Arousal values of the selected images and mean values of Tª. Average of arousal and temperature each type of image Source: González-Morales (2024) and own production
Imagen IAPS	Arousal	T (ºC)
Image1	3,71	299.236
Image2	3,26	298.739
Image3	3,62	298.284
Image4	3,71	297.952
Image5	3,17	297.456
Average type 1 (Image1-5)	17,47	1.491.667
Image6	7,44	296.673
Image7	7,21	296.554
Image8	7,37	296.226
Image9	7,04	296.207
Image10	7,15	296.251
Average type 2 (Image 6–10)	36,21	1.481.911
Image11	7,5	296.291
Image12	7,7	296.542
Image13	8,04	296.769
Image14	8,2	296.974
Image15	7,68	297.209
Average type 3 (Image 11–15)	39,12	1.483.785
Image16	4,62	297.413
Image17	4,78	297.668
Image18	4,22	298.033
Image19	4,28	298.263
Image20	3,45	298.764
Average type 3 (Image 16–20)	21,35	1.490.141

To determine the appropriate test for this case, the correlation between the arousal previously obtained by Castellar et al. (2001) was analyzed and the values recorded for each psychological variable. A normality test for samples of fewer than 50 individuals using the Shapiro-Wilks test for the Arousal variable was conducted. The statistical test revealed a significance level of 0.002, which is less than the predetermined threshold of 0.05. This suggests that the variable Arousal did not follow a normal distribution, and therefore, Spearman's Rho statistic should be used. The normality tests conducted on the T variable indicated that their data followed normal distributions. The selected images had both very high and very low arousal levels, which explains the negative result of the normality test of arousal. Correlation studies showed that the T variable had a significant correlation at the 0.01 level (bilateral) with r (N = 30) = − .706. The Spearman's correlation coefficient between the values of T and Arousal was statistically significant (N = 30, r = − .706, p = .001), indicating a negative correlation between the two variables. This suggests that when Arousal is greater, T is lower. The correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed), demonstrating that temperature is the most reliable indicator of arousal in static images (González-Morales, 2024).

Images included in type 1 are images which transmit calm and well being, smiling children, butterflies, flowers and landscapes. Images included in type 2 are images which transmit high arousal and well being, couples in erotic situations and risky sports, but pleasant for those who like to feel freedom. Images included in type 3 are images which transmit high arousal and avoidance, bodies attacked, buried, disfigured, and shot. Images included in type 4 are images which transmit low arousal and avoidance, imprisoned, drunk, dry tree leaves on the ground, a beggar and a pool in very bad condition.

For static images, the excitement generated by each type of image was examined using temperature. Estrada (2013) reached the same conclusion as that of González-Morales (2024). No research says otherwise.

It can be seen as in a traditional analysis, with the conscious activity of the participants, the most activating types of images are type 2 images, followed by type 3, then type 4 and finally type 1 (Castellar et al, 2001). However, according to the neuromarketing evaluation, the most activating images are type 2, followed by type 3, then type 1 and finally type 4.

No neuromarketing studies have been found on the relationship between the different types of images that can be used in static advertising and the arousal they generate, so the best option is to compare the results with the study by Castellar et al. (2001).

The authors suggest that not all variables have the same effectiveness in evaluating images for static ads, and that temperature is a good variable for evaluating the emotional arousal of static visual stimuli in neuromarketing, providing a better correlation than heart rate and galvanic skin response.

Accurately measuring emotional arousal in marketing requires assessing the response of each person and selecting the most relevant variable to measure it. The activation created by the advertising can then be assessed using this variable.

It is recommended that, unless a more effective psychophysiological variable is available, fingertip temperature should be used to assess emotional activation in static advertising rather than GSR or HR.

The type of images that cause the most excitement are type 2 and type 3. In type 2 there are images that cause high excitement and approach, couples in erotic situations and risky sports, pleasant for those who like to feel freedom (parachuting). In type 3, the images show bodies that have been attacked, buried, disfigured and shot are images that convey high arousal and are avoidance.

According to the experiment and the theory, we can say that image type 2 could be the best type of image to generate high arousal and approach, so it is the best type of image to generate a positive memory, and type 3 is the best type of images to generate high arousal and avoidance, so it could be the best type of images to generate negative memory.

Images of type 1, such as smiling children, butterflies, flowers, and landscapes, were the most relaxing, while images of type 2, such as erotic images and parachuting, generated the highest level of arousal. The second highest level of arousal is generated by type 3; those depicting bodies that have been attacked, buried, disfigured, or shot. The third level of arousal generated is type 4, which are images of individuals who are imprisoned, drunk, beggars, dry tree leaves on the ground, or in a pool in very bad condition.

This is very important in marketing and advertising plans. However, it is necessary to research further in order to master this discipline.

Theoretical Contributions

Determining and knowing the intensity of the excitement created by the advertising stimuli is essential for investigating the effect of emotional arousal on static advertising; it is recommended to using peripheral psychophysiological temperature as a more objective measure than GSR and HR. This approach provides a replicable tool for studying the influence of emotional arousal on the effectiveness of static advertising.

Based on the experiment and theory, it can be concluded that type 2 images (erotic and risky sports) is the type which generates more arousal, so it could help to create positive memories, while type 3 images (depicting death by weapons, body disfigurement, and death) generate the second higher level of arousal, so it can to help to create negative memories. This conclusion is supported by research conducted using neuromarketing.

This information researched by neuromarketing is crucial for research in marketing and advertising purposes.

Implications for advertisers

Advertisers will have a more accurate understanding of the impact of emotional arousal on the effectiveness of advertising when researchers conduct experiments on the influence of arousal in advertising, using the findings of this article.

In addition, by presenting advertisements as stimuli to a representative sample of their target audience prior to final broadcast or distribution, advertisers and publicists will be able to more accurately assess the emotional responses elicited by their advertisements.

In addition, neuromarketing confirmed the type of images that are more arousing, so advertisers will have a better idea of the type of images that can be used in advertising.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Despite the fact that the human body is similar in terms of psychophysiology in all cultures, the participants in this study were Spanish and the stimulating images were considered acceptable because they were previously evaluated in Spain, so these conclusions apply to Spain with these images.

In terms of the most correlated psychophysiological variable, it is possible to extrapolate the results of the research to all human beings.

There is also the question of the type of images that evoke a reaction in the different cultures. Evaluation in other cultural contexts would be required for this. However, it is possible to extrapolate to other cultures that are similar.

The sample size is 30, which is in the range from 20 to 50. For the study of emotional and physiological reactions, this is desirable.

It may be desirable to have a replication of the experiment in order to have a more reliable extension of the results to the general population. However, another experiment has also shown that temperature is the variable that best correlates with the evaluation of visual stimuli in sport, including pictures.

The research has identified a psychophysical variable with a high correlation with arousal in static images and has raised important questions which must be studied in the future about the relationship between arousal levels and memory formation, the influence of valence on this relationship, the optimal arousal level for memory formation, the optimal time of exposition to generate memory and the types of images that generate different levels of arousal for each valence. It is necessary to address these unknowns in order to fully understand this field.

The Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association for experiments with human beings (Declaration of Helsinki) has been taken into account. Each subject gave informed consent, and the privacy rights of human subjects were observed.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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The types of images to use in advertising for more emotional activation. A study using neuromarketing

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Abstract

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INTRODUCTION

The Importance of Neuromarketing

Emotion Generated and Advertising Effectiveness

Neuromarketing and Advertising Effectiveness

Necessary advancements in the study of arousal through the use of neuromarketing

Purpose of this paper

Basic principles of neuromarketing in arousal measurement

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Material

Method

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

CONCLUSIONS

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References

Additional Declarations

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