2.1 Teaching and learning
Various theorists, including Aristotle, Hobbes, Hume, Brown, Bain, Ebbinghause Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner, among others, have proposed theories to provide a framework that will influence effective and efficient learning (Ismail, Abdul-Majid & Musibai, 2017). Behaviorist theory holds that the learning pattern of a learner is influenced by environmental stimuli. Learners are motivated by reinforcement (i.e., positive and negative) (Farjon, Smits & Voogt,2019). Contrary to behaviourist theory, cognitive theory asserts that learners understand more by active involvement and participation in learning rather than responding to stimuli (Graham, 2019). In other words, learning is inside; this is where the brains of learners process what they receive rather than reacting to stimuli (Ibid). Constructivist theory views the learner as a “constructor” of knowledge. This means that the environment of a learner’s impact on his or her ability to generate new knowledge. Humanist theory assumes that educators must first recognise the cognitive and affective needs of learners. Once this is accomplished, effective learning is guaranteed. In the 21st century, these foundational learning theory domains have received considerable criticism about their applicability.
However, teaching “is a set of events the learners which are designed to support internal process of learning” (Sequeira, 2018: 3). In simple terms, it is a process of active engagement or interaction between learners and educators (Wilson & Peterson, 2006). The process of learning starts with teaching, followed by summative assessment and reflection (Alsadoon, 2017; Tang, 2020), as depicted in Figure 1. This means that assessment gauges the understanding of learners to the taught materials and, at the same time, the tutor should reflect on the assessed material (Mupa & Chinooneka, 2015). Alsadoom (2017) admitted that learners need to be motivated by exposing them to both psychosocial environments and virtual learning environment resources. This will impact their success. Ozerem and Akkoyunlu (2015) believe that learning environments and learning processes should be designed in such a manner as to support various learning styles.
Educators emphasise that learners’ academic achievement is a factor of classroom management, student orientation and cognitive activation (Mupa & Chinooneka, 2015). The learner’s role in learning is therefore to utilise these variables to be effective. Figure 1 presents a model for effective teaching and learning.
Experts in the field of education have suggested that effective learning depends on the identification of classes of learners (i.e., slow learners and fast learners) (Rice, 2003), and the educator should accommodate these variances (Save the Children Sweden, 2008). The educator must respect all students and offer equal opportunities in terms of participation (Davis, 1989). Convincing research outlines the attributes of an effective teacher, as summarised in Table 1. The classroom environment also plays a pivotal role in enhancing learning, especially the physical presence of learners and teachers (Save the Children Sweden, 2008; ALSadoon, 2017). Research suggests that “children sitting farthest away from the teacher have the fewest interactions with them, are the least involved in classroom activities, and have the lowest achievement scores” (Save the Children Sweden, 2008). This means that the physical presence of an educator is very important.
Table 1: Attributes of an effective teacher
Adapted from Education Development Trust (2016) and Save the Children Sweden (2008)
Research in the field of education has shown that there is no single approach to learning. Some learners prefer interactive environments with a tutor, while others prefer independent learning (Ozerem & Akkoyunlu, 2015). It is vital to identify learners’ learning styles (Save the Children Sweden, 2008) to accommodate different types of learners. Learning styles can include verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes (Mupa & Chinooneka, 2015). These learning approaches influence the learning life path of a learner. The effective learning process should meet the following criterion according to Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992):
1. Gaining attention (reception)
2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalisation) (Mupa & Chinooneka, 2015).
2.2 e-learning, merits and challenges
Many studies have indicated that there is a new paradigm for teaching and learning in the 21st century (Jacobs, 2013). The new learning approach is more interactive than the top-down lecturing approach. The new learning platform is commonly referred to as a student-driven approach or self-paced learning practice (Barr & Miller, 2013) in which students cocreate the learning process. It is gradually displacing the traditional classroom learning model, especially in developed countries (Wallace, n.d.; Mathew & Iloanya, n.d.). Learners can make use of mobile technology and learning tools such as iPads, computers, iPhone, interactive audio or videoconferencing, FaceTime and Skype, webcasts, and instructional videos via CD-ROMs (Barr and Miller, 2013, Matthew & Iloanya, n.d.). It is believed that academic institutions can provide the following webcams, electronic books, and audio devices to their learners to enhance learning. Unlike in the traditional classroom model of teaching, online teachers provide high-level guidance rather than lessons (Onstankowicz-Bazan, 2016; Brittany, 2015). Online learning refers to:
“Instructional environments supported by the Internet. Online learning comprises a wide variety of programs that use the Internet within and beyond school walls to provide access to instructional materials as well as facilitate interaction among educators and Learners” (U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology, 2012:2).
According to (Rosenberg 2001:3; Longmire 2001), e-learning is defined as the use of internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. Thus, e-learning can be taken as the latest form of distance learning mediated by state-of-the-art technologies such as the internet and the Worldwide Web (Rana, Rajiv and Manohar 2014:20). Fully online or hybrid or mixed learning are types of online learning (Gillett-Swan, 2017). The fully blended package is a complete package in which teaching, and examination involve internet-based delivery, while hybrid learning offers an interactive platform (U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology, 2012:2).
Evidence suggests that online/distance education operates best as a system of dynamic, interrelated components, which may vary in terms of implementation by context (Holmberg, 2005; Picciano, 2017). Together, these components (Figure 2) foster a learning community that is driven by pedagogy and incorporates a range of activities, which enables flexible delivery (Picciano, 2017). Constituent components can be adapted, combined or excluded as needed; for example, in some cases, self-paced learning may not be used, or reflection activities may be combined with some form of collaboration between learners (Picciano, 2017). Using this model allows educators to customise their content delivery to achieve their specific curriculum goals (Acquaro, 2020)
Critically, within the field of distance education, there are three forms of interaction widely recognised as crucial to program development and delivery: student-content, student‒student, and student-teacher (Simonson, Schlosser, & Orellana, 2011). These forms of interaction should be considered at each stage of planning for online/distance learning and are incorporated in each component outlined in Picciano’s model. For example, online content may be delivered as a collaborative exercise that engages small groups of learners in an activity designed to generate group discussion, reflection and social interaction. In this way, educators can use the model provided above as a guide for considering how the constituent elements of online learning can function together.
The proponents of online teaching and learning reveal the benefits associated with this new paradigm, such as convenience, enhanced learning, frustration, the levelling of the playing field, innovative teaching, improved administration, savings, the promotion of critical thinking skills, reduced salary costs, and the maximisation of physical resources and outreach (U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology, 2012; Gillett-Swan, 2020; Matthew & Iloanya, n.d.). It also offers impartial and unbiased levels of interaction between learners across the globe (Jacobs, 2013). The online learning model has been praised by experts because of its ability to break social boundaries (Barr & Miller, 2013) of the education system. Learners have 24 hours of access to resources, unlike traditional classroom teaching (Jacobs, 2013). Sadly, online learning has been implemented in institutions of higher and tertiary education (Barr and Miller, 2013; Jacobs, 2013), and little is known about its impact on elementary, primary and secondary schools.
However, antagonists believe that when learners are exposed online, they feel isolated, impersonally confused or even discouraged or even a sense of disconnectedness (Chiu, 2021; Onstankowicz-Bazan, 2016; Barr & Miller, 2013; Gillett-Swan, 2017; Brittany, 2015). They also notice that online courses are rich in content, which may confuse the learner even more (Jacobs, 2013). Barr and Miller (2013) warned that an online learning platform requires self-directed learning and discipline. Under this new paradigm, educators assume a mentor or coach role. Educators upload tasks to learners, and learners expect prompt feedback. Like in a traditional classroom, the educator (mentor/coach) will monitor the learner to check the number of times he/she visited the course and discussions or questions paused by Learners (Onstankowicz-Bazan, 2016; Brittany, 2015).
Researchers have discovered several challenges associated with online teaching and learning, such as isolation, lack of trust, technical problems, and compromised education systems (Barr & Miller, 2013; Gillett-Swan, 2017; Kebritchi, Lipschuetz & Santiague, 2017). The other challenge in the online learning model is assessment: online assessments are more structured than self-directed assessments (Gillett-Swan, 2017). Researchers believe that educators should adopt a more hybrid approach than a fully blended online approach by conducting face-to-face lessons or “record the collaboration among Learners and incorporate the audio/video into online courses” (Barr & Miller, 2013: 5). This is done to prevent learners from being isolated from the world of learning. Learners are urged to embrace connectedness, interdependency, socialisation, and common goals to enhance their success in online learning programs (Wallace, n.d.; Rovai (2002) cited in Barr & Miller, 2013). Rovai (2002), as cited in Barr and Miller (2013), concludes that the solutions to online challenges such as isolation include “increasing dialogue, encouraging mutual awareness and interaction, establishing proper netiquette, providing small group collaborative experiences, ensuring that group tasks are effective for all, embracing differentiated instruction practices, and managing community size as appropriate for student success” (2013:5). The principles of effective online teaching developed by education experts include broadening access, engaging learners in active learning, individualising and differentiation instruction, personalising learning, making better use of tutors and learner time, and increasing the rate of student learning (U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology, 2012). These principles should be incorporated to improve learners’ success. It is important to note that online and traditional classroom lectures differ greatly in terms of technical and pedagogical competencies (Wallacce, n.d.). The roles of educators in the online learning model include (i) social, (ii) technical, (iii) assessor, (iv) facilitator, (v) content expert, (vi) managerial, and (vii) pedagogical (Ní Shé et al., 2019). The challenge often cited in the literature is the validation of these roles in the learning environment (Ibid).
Despite the numerous presumed merits of online teaching, implementers should first carry out research to assess the feasibility of online learning for diverse learners in terms of technological affordances, Internet accessibility, technical knowhow and supervision, subject domains, parents’ roles and instructional and assessment approaches (U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology, 2012; Kebritchi et al., 2017; Jacobs, 2013). The U.S. Department of Education Office of Education Technology further recommends that online models be evaluated before implementation to determine whether learners living with disabilities and those in remote areas are not disadvantaged.