3.1. Anthropometric measurements, Blood and Urine markers
A total of 188 healthy males aged 23 to 56 years participated in the study. A more detailed description of TDEE, and anthropometric characteristics data of the study population is shown in Table 1. Mean BMI (25.4±2.9 kg/m2) was considered in the lower range of overweight, according to reference values. However, we observed a percentage of body fat (19.1±6.5%) established as normal in adult men. Furthermore waist/hip ratio (0.87 ± 0.05) in the total sample showed no risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Percentage of body water (60.4±7.5%) in the total sample was in the range of normal values (55-65%) (33).
Table 1. Anthropometric Characteristics and Total Daily Energy Expenditure of the participants
|
Total
|
|
n=188
|
|
mean
|
SD
|
TDEE (kcal/day)
|
3158.7
|
(333.9)
|
Height (cm)
|
178.7
|
(6.2)
|
Weight (kg)
|
81.6
|
(10.3)
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
25.4
|
(2.9)
|
Body water (%)
|
60.4
|
(7.5)
|
Body fat (%)
|
19.1
|
(6.5)
|
Waist/hip ratio
|
0.87
|
(0.05)
|
TDEE: Total daily energy expenditure. BMI: Body mass index
Moreover, blood indices (Erythrocyte (5.2±0.4 million/ µl), Hemoglobin (15.2±1.1 g/dl) and Hematocrit (44.7±2.5%)) were within the physiological range (34) (table 1), as well as the urine markers (35) (table 2).
Table 2. Urine Markers of the participants
|
Total
|
|
n=188
|
|
median
|
IQR
|
pH
|
6.0
|
(5-7)
|
Specific gravity (g/L)
|
1020
|
(1015-1020)
|
3.2. Water Intake, Water Elimination and Water Balance
Water from beverages (2709.5±943.6 mL/day), water from foods (795.5±413.7 mL/day), total water intake (3508.9±1112.1 mL/day), water elimination (3402.4 ±1086.5 mL/day), water balance (88.5±1294.3 mL/day) and total water intake/weight (43.7±14.9 mL/kg), were estimated by the HSQ. Total water intake/weight was correlated positively with percentage of body water (rho=0.357, p=0.000) and negatively with body fat (kg) (rho= -0.427, p=0.000), percentage of body fat (rho= -0.405, p=0.000), waist (rho=0.390, p=0.000), hip (rho= -0.401, p=0.000) and waist/hip ratio (rho= -0.223, p=0.002).
3.3 Hydration Status
It was found that 81 % of the total population met the hydration criteria whereas 19 % did not. Table 3 shows TDEE and anthropometric characteristics, according to the hydration status. Even though there were no statistical differences in anthropometric data according to HS, subjects that did not meet hydration criteria had higher weight (84.7 ± 10.5 vs 80.8 ± 10.2 Kg), BMI (26.3 ± 3.1 vs 25.2 ± 2.8 kg/m2) and body fat (22.3 ± 5.6 vs 18.3 ± 6.5%), higher waist/ hip ratio (0.9 ± 0.1 vs 0.87 ± 0.1), and lower body water (58.1 ± 7.2 vs 60.9 ± 7.5%), than subjects that met hydration criteria.
Table 3. Total Daily Energy Expenditure and Anthropometric Characteristics categorized by Hydration Status.
|
Not Meet Hydration Criteria
|
Meet Hydration Criteria
|
P values
|
|
n=36
|
n=152
|
|
|
mean
|
SD
|
mean
|
SD
|
|
TDEE (kcal/day)
|
3196.9
|
(352.4)
|
3149.6
|
(329.9)
|
0.938
|
Height (cm)
|
178.7
|
(5.8)
|
178.7
|
(6.3)
|
0.746
|
Weight (Kg)
|
84.7
|
(10.5)
|
80.8
|
(10.2)
|
0.543
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
26.3
|
(3.1)
|
25.2
|
(2.8)
|
0.244
|
Body water (%)
|
58.1
|
(7.2)
|
60.9
|
(7.5)
|
0.868
|
Body fat (%)
|
22.3
|
(5.6)
|
18.3
|
(6.5)
|
0.551
|
Waist/hip ratio
|
0.9
|
(0.1)
|
0.87
|
(0.1)
|
0.171
|
P-values derived through Student's T-test. TDEE: Total daily energy expenditure. BMI: Body mass index
Results of WI, WE and WB are presented in Table 4, and urine markers in Table 5. Subjects that did not meet the hydration criteria had significantly lower water intake from beverages (p=0.002), water from food (p=0.005), total water intake (p=0.000), water balance (p=0.034), total water intake/weight (p=0.000), pH (p=0.023), higher specific gravity (p=0.043) and urine color (Chi2 p=0.000) than subjects that met the hydration criteria. However, differences in blood indices were not observed in both groups (erythrocyte: 5.2±0.3 vs 5.2±0.4 million/ µl (p=0.953), hemoglobin: 15.3±0.8 vs 15.2±1.1 g/dl (p=0.840) and hematocrit: 44.8±2.3 vs 44.7±2.2 % (p=0.710)). Urine and blood indices were within the physiological ranges in both groups (34, 35).
Table 4. Total Water Intake, Water Elimination, Water Balance, and Total Water Intake/Weight by Hydration Status
|
Not Meet Hydration Criteria
|
Meet Hydration Criteria
|
P values
|
|
n=36
|
n=152
|
|
|
mean
|
SD
|
mean
|
SD
|
|
Water from beverages(mL/day)
|
1704.4
|
(489.9)
|
2947.6
|
(865.5)
|
0.002*
|
Water from food (mL/day)
|
574.1
|
(250.4)
|
847.9
|
(427.7)
|
0.005*
|
Total water intake (mL/day)
|
2278.4
|
(473.6)
|
3800.4
|
(1016.4)
|
0.000*
|
Water loss (mL/day)
|
3383.3
|
(1130.9)
|
3406.9
|
(1079.5)
|
0.975
|
Water balance (mL/day)
|
-1104.8
|
(996.6)
|
371.1
|
(1193.5)
|
0.034*
|
Total water intake/Weight (mL/kg)
|
27.1
|
(5.4)
|
47.6
|
(13.8)
|
0.000*
|
P-values derived through Student's T-test. * Significant differences between groups (Student's T-test, p≤0,05)
Table 5. Urine Markers by Hydration Status
|
Not Meet Hydration Criteria
|
Meet Hydration Criteria
|
P values
|
|
n=36
|
n=152
|
|
|
median
|
IQR
|
median
|
IQR
|
|
pH
|
5
|
(5-6.5)
|
6
|
(5-7)
|
0.023*
|
Specific gravity (g/L)
|
1020
|
(1015-1020)
|
1020
|
(1015-1020)
|
0.043*
|
P-values derived through Mann-Whitney U test. * Significant differences between groups (Mann-Whitney U test, p≤0.05)
3.4 Anxiety Status
Anxiety results showed a low level of anxiety in the total sample: score 3 (interquartile range: 2-5) for STAI-State and score 2 (interquartile range: 2-3) for STAI-Trait score. No correlation with any variable of HS was observed.
By HS category, significant differences were noted in the anxiety test STAI-State (p=0.026), where subjects that did not meet hydration criteria had higher scores value (4 vs 3) than the group that met the hydration criteria (Table 6).
Table 6. Anxiety Status of the participants sorted by the Hydration Status
|
Not Meet Hydration Criteria
|
Meet Hydration Criteria
|
P values
|
|
n=35
|
n=149
|
|
|
median
|
IQR
|
median
|
IQR
|
|
State Trait Anxiety Inventory -State
|
4
|
(3-5)
|
3
|
(2-4)
|
0.026*
|
State Trait Anxiety Inventory -Trait
|
2
|
(2-3)
|
2
|
(2-3)
|
0.312
|
P-values derived through Mann-Whitney U test. * Significant differences between groups (Mann-Whitney U test, p≤0,05)