Children were equally distributed by age group and sex. More than half (58.2%) of the participants were from rural residence while the others were from urban areas (41.7%). Three out ten (30%) of the participants came from households classified as poorest while 23% were considered as poor. About 29% were classified as wealthy children and 18% were considered as middle class. Prevalence of stunting, underweight, wasting and obesity among the children were 30.4%, 31.2%, 12.3% and 3.9%, respectively (Table 2).
Table 3 presents the median (10th, 90th percentile) consumption of each food group. Results showed that there was a significant difference between the median consumption of all food groups except fruits, beans, nuts & peas and mixed dishes of normal and stunted children; as well as normal and underweight children. Intakes of grains, all meats, sweets, fats and oils; beverages and milk were significantly higher in normal than among the stunted and underweight children. Intake of vegetables is significantly higher among stunted than normal children but among underweight children intake was similar with normal children. Intake of fruit and fruit juices, beans, nuts and peas and mixed dishes is similar among stunted and normal children as well as underweight and normal children. Consumption of grains and vegetables significantly differ between normal and wasted children but Intakes of all meat, sweets, fats and oils, other food and beverages, fruit and fruit juices, milk, beans, nuts and peas and mixed dishes was similar between wasted and normal children. Between normal and obese children, test showed that there was a difference on the consumption of grains, all meat, sweets, fats & oils, beans, nuts & peas and other food and beverages but among obese and normal children’s intakes of vegetables, fruits, milk, and mixed dishes was similar.
Usual mean ± SE of energy and key nutrient intakes by nutritional status are presented in Table 4. Test showed that stunted and underweight children have significantly lower mean intake of all nutrient intakes compared to normal children (P < 0.001). However, obese children have higher mean intake of all nutrients in contrast to children with normal nutritional status (P < 0.001). Wasted children have lower intake all nutrients (P < 0.001) except thiamin compared to normal children.
The difference between means of usual utilizable protein and total protein intake is also shown in Table 4. Mean of usual total protein intake of stunted, underweight, wasted and obese children were 37 g, 33 g, 39 g, and 63 g per day respectively while mean of usual utilizable protein intake were 29 g, 26 g, 31 g, and 51 g respectively. Mean of usual utilizable protein intake was significantly lower compared to mean of total protein intake.
The prevalence of inadequacy of the total protein and utilizable protein by malnutrition status is shown in Fig. 1. Prevalence of inadequacy of utilizable protein in stunted, underweight, wasted and obese children was 42.9%, 29.1%, 19.4% and 4.9% respectively; the prevalence of inadequacy of total protein in stunted, underweight, wasted and obese children was 25.8%, 48.4%, 37.1% and 9.3% respectively. Prevalence of inadequacy of both utilizable and total protein was higher for stunted, underweight and wasted children compared to normal children. In contrast, obese children have lower prevalence of inadequacy of both utilizable and total protein compared to normal children.
Table 5 shows the adjusted ratio of food groups for nutritional status among school-aged children. Among stunted, all meat, all grains and sweets remained statistically significant after adjusting for confounders such as age sex, urbanity, and wealth quintile. Children who consumed more meat, grains and sweets were 0.99 times less likely to be stunted compared to those who consumed less from these foods.
The odds of underweight among children that consumed more grains and sweets were both 0.99 times less likely than those who consumed less. Children who consumed milk was 0.63 times (95% CI: 0.43, 0.91) less likely to be underweight than those that consumed less. Prevalence of wasting was 0.99 times less likely for those children that consumed more grains than those consumed less. The odds of children being obese was 1.89 times higher for those that consumed milk and about 1.003 times more likely for those that consumed both more grains and meat.
Table 6 shows the adjusted odds ratio (OR) of nutrients for prevalence of malnutrition among school-aged children. All factors of each model were adjusted for confounding factors such as age, sex, urbanity and wealth quintile. Only utilizable protein remained significantly associated with the prevalence of stunting. The odds of children being stunted was 69% lower for children in the highest quartile (Q4) than the lowest quartile (Q1). After adjusting for confounders, utilizable protein, calcium, and riboflavin remained significantly associated to the prevalence of underweight. Specifically, children with highest utilizable protein intake (Q4) were 56% (95% CI; 35%, 91%) times less likely to become underweight than those from lowest quartile (Q1). The adjusted ORs comparing prevalence of underweight among children in Q2 of calcium intake was 89% (95% CI; 84%, 94%) less likely than those in the lowest quartiles (Q1). The odds of underweight among children in highest intake of riboflavin (Q4) was 0.91 times lower than those of the lowest quartiles (Q1).
Riboflavin, thiamin and fiber remained significantly associated with the prevalence of wasting. The odds of wasting among children in the highest intake (Q4) of riboflavin was 1.44 (95% CI; 1.03, 2.01) times more likely than those in the lowest quartiles (Q1). The odds of children being wasted was 80.9% lower for children with higher intake of thiamin (Q3) than the lowest quartile (Q1). Children with the highest intake (Q4) of fiber have 68.7% lower odds of becoming wasted compared to those children with lowest intake (Q1).
Utilizable protein, vitamin D, fiber and vitamin C were significantly associated to the prevalence of obesity. Children with highest intake (Q4) of utilizable protein have 5.44 times higher odds of becoming obese compared to those children with lowest intake (Q1). The odds of obesity among children in the higher intake (Q2) of vitamin D was 54% (95% CI; 33%, 86%) times less likely than those in the lowest quartiles (Q1). The adjusted ORs comparing prevalence of obesity in Q3 of fiber intake was 68% (95% CI; 52%, 91%) less likely than those in the lowest quartiles (Q1). Children with the highest intake (Q4) of vitamin C have 1.56 times higher odds of becoming obese compared to those children with lowest intake (Q1).
Results showed in the linear regression analysis that for every 1-unit increase of the consumption of meat, grains, and sweets, children’s height significantly increases by 0.01 (95% CI: 0.004, 0.01), 0.01 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.01), and 0.002 (95% CI: 0.001, 0.004), respectively (Table 7). Also, children consuming milk increases the height by 0.77 (95% CI: 0.02, 1.52) compared to non-consumers. Based on the results, children’s body weight significantly increase by 0.01 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.01) as meat consumption increase, by 0.01 (95% CI: 0.01, 0.01) as grains consumption increase, and by 0.003 (95% CI: 0.001, 0.01) as sweets consumption increase. Also, body mass index (BMI) also increase by 0.004 (95% CI: 0.001, 0.01), 0.003, (95% CI: 0.002, 0.004), and 0.001 (95% CI: 0.0005, 0.002) for every 1-unit increase of meat, grains, and sweets consumption.
Table 8 showed that utilizable protein, calcium, vitamin D and vitamin B12 were significant dietary factors of child’s height after including the cofounders in the regression model. Specifically, children’s height increases by 0.07 (95% CI: 0.05, 0.09) for every 1-unit increase of utilizable protein intake. Also, increasing the intake of calcium and vitamin D increases the children’s height by 0.004 (95% CI: 0.0005, 0.01) and by 0.48 (95% CI: 0.05, 0.9) respectively. In contrast, height decreases by -0.49 (95% CI: -0.84, -0.14) for every 1-unit increase of vitamin B12 intake. It also showed that utilizable protein, vitamin B12 and vitamin C intakes were the significant factors of body weight. Body weight increases by 0.10 (95% CI: 0.07, 0.12) for every 1-unit increase of utilizable protein intake while body weight decreases by -0.35 (95% CI: -0.67, -0.03) for every 1-unit increase of vitamin B12 intake. Body weight significantly increases by 0.04 (95% CI: 0.002, 0.07) for every 1-unit increase of vitamin C intake. Children’s BMI also significantly increase by 0.04 (95% CI: 0.03, 0.05) as utilizable protein intake increase by 1-unit. BMI significantly increases by 0.02 (95% CI: 0.002, 0.03) for every 1-unit increase of vitamin C intake.
Table 2
Demographic, socio-economic and nutritional status characteristics of children
|
n
|
%
|
Age Groups
|
|
|
6–9
|
3594
|
54.7
|
10–12
|
2971
|
45.2
|
Sex
|
|
|
Male
|
3387
|
51.6
|
Female
|
3178
|
48.4
|
Urbanity
|
|
|
Rural
|
3824
|
58.2
|
Urban
|
2741
|
41.7
|
Wealth Quintile
|
|
|
Poorest
|
1906
|
29.8
|
Poor
|
1487
|
23.3
|
Middle
|
1168
|
18.3
|
Rich
|
980
|
15.3
|
Richest
|
848
|
13.3
|
Nutritional Status
|
n
|
%
|
Height-for-age Classificationa
|
|
|
Normal (-2SD to 2SD)
|
4466
|
69.5
|
Stunted (<-2SD)
|
1955
|
30.4
|
Weight-for-age Classificationa
|
|
|
Normal (-2SD to 2SD)
|
2439
|
68.8
|
Underweight (<-2SD)
|
1107
|
31.2
|
BMI-for-age Classificationb
|
|
|
Severe Wasting (<-3SD)
|
156
|
2.5
|
Wasting(<-2SD to -3SD)
|
607
|
9.8
|
Normal (-2SD to 1SD)
|
5143
|
78.2
|
Overweight & Obese (> 1SD)
|
330
|
5.5
|
Obese (> 2SD)
|
217
|
3.9
|
Anthropometric
|
Mean
|
Standard Error
|
Weight (kg)
|
25.9
|
0.32
|
Height (cm)
|
127
|
0.16
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
15.64
|
0.03
|
abased on WHO Child Growth Standards |
bbased on the 2007 WHO Growth Reference BMI-for-age |
Table 3
Comparison between Nutritional Status and food intakes of school aged children, NNS 2013
|
|
Physical Indicators
|
|
All
|
Stunting
|
Underweight
|
Wasting (Thinness)
|
Obesity
|
Food Groupa
|
% of Children Consuming
|
Normal
|
Stunted
|
Normal
|
Underweight
|
Normal
|
Wasted/Thin
|
Normal
|
Obese
|
|
|
Median (10th, 90th )
|
Median (10th, 90th )
|
Median (10th, 90th )
|
Median (10th, 90th )
|
Sample, (n)
|
|
4466
|
1955
|
2439
|
1107
|
5143
|
763
|
5143
|
217
|
Grains (g)
|
99.9
|
224.2 (112.7, 431.3)
|
205 (105, 397.4)*
|
197.8 (105.6, 359.8)
|
184.3 (91.3, 346.2)*
|
217.5 (87.4)
|
193.8 (106.7, 384.6)*
|
217.5 (87.4)
|
297 (147.3, 534.1)*
|
All Meat (g)
|
90
|
93.1 (52.2, 228)
|
71.5 (35.2, 185.2) *
|
85.1 (48.3, 211.7)
|
68.8(36.1, 161.1)*
|
83 (44.5, 204.5)
|
84.4 (43.5, 196.6)NS
|
83 (44.5, 204.1)
|
155.3 (93.6, 329.7)*
|
Sweets (g)
|
70.4
|
59.4 (9.3, 331)
|
35 (5.3, 271.5)*
|
59.7 (10, 331)
|
33.5 (5, 265)*
|
50 (8, 301.8)
|
44.5 (5.8, 292)NS
|
50 (8, 301.8)
|
153 (10, 497)*
|
Fats and Oils (g)
|
65.9
|
5.1 (1.4, 15.5)
|
5 (1.4, 14.4) *
|
5 (1.4, 15)
|
5 (1.4, 13.4)*
|
5 (1.4, 15)
|
5 (1.5, 13.6)NS
|
5 (1.4, 15)
|
7.1 (2.1, 18.6)*
|
Vegetables (g)
|
53.1
|
36.4 (7.5, 132.7)
|
42.3 (8.6, 165.6) *
|
33.7 (6.7, 128.7)
|
36.1 (7.3, 139.1)NS
|
38 (8.4, 146.1)
|
35.2 (6.7, 123.1)*
|
38 (8.4, 146.1)
|
44.6 (8.9, 134.4)NS
|
Other Food and Beverages (g)
|
48.6
|
9.4 (1.2, 45)
|
6.4 (0.5, 30) *
|
9.1 (1.4, 40.8)
|
6 (0.5, 30)*
|
8 (1, 40)
|
7.5 (1, 40)NS
|
8 (1, 40_
|
20 (3.7, 95.9)*
|
Fruit and Fruit Juices (g)
|
17.6
|
61 (10.8, 200)
|
68 (14.4, 190.5)NS
|
56.2 (10.8, 180)
|
64.1 (14.4, 208.1)NS
|
63.4 (11.3, 193.5)
|
68 (17.3, 189.7)NS
|
63.4 (11.3, 193.5)
|
49.7 (8.1, 237)NS
|
Milk (g)
|
17.5
|
19.6 (6.6, 90)
|
18.8 (6.1, 56.6)*
|
20.3 (7.5, 94)
|
18.8 (5, 69.6)*
|
18.8 (6.3, 80)
|
18.8 (8.7, 70)NS
|
18.8 (6.3, 80)
|
28 (8.6, 120)NS
|
Beans, Nuts, and Peas (g)
|
8.9
|
26 (13, 90)
|
22.1 (13, 91.2)NS
|
20 (13, 72.8)
|
19.5 (13, 72.8)NS
|
26 (13, 91.2)
|
18.8 (11, 72.8)NS
|
26 (13, 91.2)
|
36.4 (30, 124.8)*
|
Mixed Dishes (g)
|
4.4
|
228 (30, 454.5)
|
228 (10, 303)NS
|
228 (20, 303)
|
187.7 (37, 303)NS
|
228 (10, 303)
|
228 (75.9, 303)NS
|
228 (10, 303)
|
236.8 (30, 372.8)NS
|
Abbreviation: NS = Not Significant |
abased on 24-h food recall; |
*significant using Wilcoxon signed rank test with 95% level of significance (P < 0.05) |
Table 4
Comparison between Nutritional Status and usual energy and nutrient intakes of school aged children, NNS 2013
|
Physical Indicators
|
|
Stunting
|
Underweight
|
Wasting
|
Obesity
|
Nutrientsa
|
Normal
|
Stunted
|
Normal
|
Underweight
|
Normal
|
Wasted
|
Normal
|
Obese
|
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Mean ± SE
|
Sample, n
|
4466
|
1955
|
2439
|
1107
|
5143
|
763
|
5143
|
217
|
Energy (kcal)
|
1418.3 ± 7.2
|
1220 ± 10.6*
|
1291.3 ± 8.5
|
1101.9 ± 11.4*
|
1324.6 ± 6.5
|
1269.5 ± 15.3*
|
1324.6 ± 6.5
|
1929.9 ± 33.3*
|
Total Protein (g)
|
43.7 ± 0.33
|
36.7 ± 0.43*
|
39.5 ± 0.4
|
33.3 ± 0.5*
|
40.3 ± 0.28
|
38.7 ± 0.71*
|
40.3 ± 0.28
|
62.6 ± 1.8*
|
Utilizable Protein (g)
|
34.8 ± 0.28
|
28.6 ± 0.37*
|
31.7 ± 0.35
|
26.1 ± 0.43*
|
31.8 ± 0.24
|
30.8 ± 0.61*
|
31.8 ± 0.24
|
50.9 ± 1.6*
|
Total Fat (g)
|
29.8 ± 0.25
|
20.8 ± 0.30*
|
28.4 ± 0.32
|
19.4 ± 0.33*
|
25.8 ± 0.22
|
24.6 ± 0.49*
|
25.8 ± 0.22
|
48.1 ± 1.3*
|
Carbohydrates (g)
|
243.4 ± 1.28
|
220.9 ± 1.99*
|
218.9 ± 1.47
|
198 ± 2.17*
|
232.5 ± 1.19
|
222.7 ± 2.83*
|
232.5 ± 1.19
|
311.5 ± 6*
|
Total Fiber (g)
|
6.9 ± 0.04
|
6.8 ± 0.07*
|
6.4 ± 0.05
|
6.1 ± 0.08*
|
6.9 ± 0.04
|
6.2 ± 0.09*
|
6.9 ± 0.04
|
8.5 ± 0.2*
|
Total Sugar (g)
|
28.8 ± 0.26
|
22.4 ± 0.33*
|
29.1 ± 0.39
|
22.3 ± 0.40*
|
25.8 ± 0.22
|
25.3 ± 0.51*
|
25.8 ± 0.22
|
37.6 ± 1.3*
|
Calcium (mg)
|
284.6 ± 1.90
|
241.3 ± 2.87*
|
271.5 ± 2.55
|
228.2 ± 3.52*
|
265.4 ± 1.72
|
253.3 ± 4.52*
|
265.4 ± 1.72
|
369.7 ± 11.3*
|
Phosphorus (mg)
|
667.9 ± 3.51
|
579.7 ± 5.20*
|
608.8 ± 4.14
|
524.4 ± 5.86*
|
624.8 ± 3.15
|
600.2 ± 7.56*
|
624.8 ± 3.15
|
908.1 ± 17.3*
|
Iron (mg)
|
7.9 ± 0.07
|
6.4 ± 0.08*
|
7.4 ± 0.09
|
6.6 ± 0.20*
|
7.2 ± 0.07
|
7.5 ± 0.23*
|
7.2 ± 0.07
|
11.4 ± 0.3*
|
Sodium (mg)
|
937.3 ± 7.58
|
746.6 ± 11.5*
|
887.5 ± 9.97
|
716.3 ± 13.2*
|
844.9 ± 6.96
|
827.3 ± 16.3*
|
844.9 ± 6.96
|
1440 ± 35.3*
|
Vitamin A RE (µg RE)
|
314 ± 2.99
|
292.1 ± 4.53*
|
309.8 ± 4.1
|
262.1 ± 5.57*
|
312 .3 ± 3.51
|
310.4 ± 7.1*
|
312 .3 ± 3.51
|
401.3 ± 9.2*
|
Thiamin (mg)
|
0.69 ± 0.004
|
0.54 ± 0.005*
|
0.65 ± 0.005
|
0.51 ± 0.006*
|
0.63 ± 0.004
|
0.60 ± 0.09NS
|
0.63 ± 0.004
|
0.95 ± 0.02*
|
Riboflavin (mg)
|
0.63 ± 0.005
|
0.49 ± 0.007*
|
0.61 ± 0.009
|
0.47 ± 0.008*
|
0.56 ± 0.004
|
0.55 ± 0.01NS
|
0.56 ± 0.004
|
0.86 ± 0.02*
|
Niacin (mg)
|
13.6 ± 0.07
|
11.6 ± 0.11*
|
12.3 ± 0.09
|
10.5 ± 0.12*
|
12.6 ± 0.07
|
12.2 ± 0.15*
|
12.6 ± 0.07
|
18.5 ± 0.35*
|
Ascorbic Acid (mg)
|
20.9 ± 0.21
|
21.2 ± 0.33*
|
19.9 ± 0.26
|
20.3 ± 0.50*
|
20.8 ± 0.20
|
19.1 ± 0.52*
|
20.8 ± 0.20
|
26.6 ± 1.23*
|
Abbreviation: NS = Not Significant |
abased on 2 days non-consecutive food recall; |
*significant using ztest with 95% level of significance (P < 0.05) |
Table 5
Adjusted odds ratio (OR) of food groups for nutritional status among school aged children
|
Odds Ratio (95% Conf.Interval)
|
Food Groups
|
Stuntinga
|
Underweighta
|
Wastinga
|
Obesea
|
All meat (g)
|
0.99 (0.997, 0.999)*
|
0.99 (0.99, 1)
|
0.99 (0.99, 1)
|
1.003 (1.001, 1.006)**
|
All Grains (g)
|
0.99 (0.996, 0.998)**
|
0.99 (0.996, 0.999)*
|
0.998 (0.996, 0.999)*
|
1.003 (1.001, 1.004)**
|
Sweets (g)
|
0.99 (0.998,0.999)*
|
0.99 (0.997, 0.999)*
|
0.999 (0.998, 1)
|
1.001 (0.999, 1.002)
|
Fats & Oils (g)
|
1.003 (0.99, 1.01)
|
0.99 (0.98, 1.01)
|
1 (0.99, 1.02)
|
1.01 (0.99, 1.03)
|
All Milk
|
|
|
|
|
Non-Consumer
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
Consumer
|
0.89 (0.67, 1.19)
|
0.63 (0.44, 0.91)*
|
1.16 (0.79, 1.68)
|
1.89 (1.21, 2.96)*
|
Fruits & Fruit Juice
|
|
|
|
|
Non-Consumer
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
Consumer
|
1.16 (0.91, 1.48)
|
1. 54 (0.75, 1.47)
|
0.94 (0.67, 1.32)
|
0.76 (0.41, 1.4)
|
Beans, Nuts and Peas
|
|
|
|
|
Non-Consumer
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
ref
|
Consumer
|
1.35 (0.95, 1.94)
|
1.63 (0.99, 2.66)
|
0.82 (0.51, 1.32)
|
0.78 (0.34, 1.79)
|
aAll model were adjusted for age, sex, urbanity, and wealth index. |
**p-value < 0.001, *p-value < 0.05 |
Table 6
Adjusted odds ratio (OR) of nutrients for the prevalence of malnutrition among school aged children
|
Odds Ratio (95% Conf.Interval)
|
Nutrients
|
Stunting vs. Normal a
|
Underweight vs Normal a
|
Wasting vs Normal a
|
Obese vs Normal a
|
Utilizable Protein
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.86 (0.75, 0.98)*
|
0.94 (0.85, 1.03)
|
0.99 (0.66, 1.5)
|
0.97 (0.52, 1.83)
|
Q3
|
0.83 (0.68, 1.03)
|
0.79 (0.65, 0.97)*
|
0.91 (0.58, 1.42)
|
1.65 (0.34, 7.95)
|
Q4
|
0.69 (0.53, 0.9)*
|
0.57 (0.35, 0.91)*
|
0.65 (0.27, 1.55)
|
5.44 (2.56, 11.5)*
|
Calcium
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.84 (0.59, 1.2)
|
0.89 (0.84, 0.94)*
|
0.83 (0.6, 1.17)
|
0.7 (0.24, 2.07)
|
Q3
|
0.73 (0.48, 1.12)
|
0.78 (0.54, 1.11)
|
0.79 (0.5, 1.27)
|
0.71 (0.27, 1.83)
|
Q4
|
0.8 (0.46, 1.38)
|
1.02 (0.83, 1.25)
|
0.97 (0.79, 1.19)
|
0.59 (0.31, 1.12)
|
Vitamin D
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.98 (0.83, 1.15)
|
1.14 (0.89, 1.46)
|
1.2 (0.96, 1.5)
|
0.54 (0.33, 0.86)*
|
Q3
|
1.09 (0.85, 1.39)
|
0.99 (0.81, 1.23)
|
1.15 (0.99, 1.34)
|
0.77 (0.39, 1.5)
|
Q4
|
0.92 (0.71, 1.2)
|
1.11 (0.67, 1.85)
|
0.998 (0.69, 1.45)
|
0.85 (0.55, 1.31)
|
Vitamin B12
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.95 (0.78, 1.15)
|
0.91 (0.53, 1.58)
|
0.999 (0.71, 1.41)
|
1.45 (0.91, 2.33)
|
Q3
|
0.86 (0.73, 1.03)
|
0.85 (0.71, 1.02)
|
0.87 (0.67, 1.14)
|
1.07 (0.44, 2.57)
|
Q4
|
1.1 (0.76, 1.59)
|
1.05 (0.75, 1.47)
|
1.06 (0.68, 1.65)
|
1.43 (0.79, 2.57)
|
Riboflavin
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.9 (0.69, 1.18)
|
0.9 (0.69, 1.17)
|
1.18 (0.8, 1.73)
|
1.51 (0.38, 6)
|
Q3
|
0.87 (0.59, 1.31)
|
1.01 (0.71, 1.45)
|
1.42 (1.26, 1.6)*
|
0.86 (0.16, 4.47)
|
Q4
|
0.82 (0.52, 1.29)
|
0.91 (0.85, 0.98)*
|
1.44 (1.03, 2.01)*
|
1.04 (0.17, 6.56)
|
Thiamin
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
1.09 (0.87, 1.38)
|
1.08 (0.79, 1.47)
|
0.86 (0.49, 1.52)
|
1.16 (0.22, 6.22)
|
Q3
|
1.01 (0.82, 1.24)
|
0.95 (0.73, 1.22)
|
0.81 (0.66, 0.99)*
|
1.44 (0.28, 7.56)
|
Q4
|
0.85 (0.59, 1.21)
|
0.81 (0.54, 1.21)
|
0.77 (0.56, 1.06)
|
1.84 (0.56, 5.98)
|
Fiber
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
0.81 (0.63, 1.05)
|
1.03 (0.87, 1.21)
|
0.83 (0.72, 0.96)*
|
0.64 (0.36, 1.14)
|
Q3
|
0.92 (0.74, 1.17)
|
1 (0.63, 1.61)
|
0.84 (0.63, 1.13)
|
0.68 (0.52, 0.91)*
|
Q4
|
0.98 (0.66, 1.45)
|
0.89 (0.61, 1.32)
|
0.69 (0.51, 0.93)*
|
0.98 (0.76, 1.26)
|
Vitamin C
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
1.01 (0.87, 1.16)
|
1.08 (0.89, 1.31)
|
1 (0.82, 1.23)
|
1.37 (0.75, 2.52)
|
Q3
|
1.02 (0.87, 1.2)
|
1.08 (0.82, 1.42)
|
0.95 (0.77, 1.16)
|
1.13 (0.74, 1.73)
|
Q4
|
1.03 (0.82, 1.29)
|
1.15 (0.92, 1.45)
|
0.94 (0.61, 1.47)
|
1.56 (1.02, 2.39)*
|
Vitamin A
|
|
|
|
|
Q1
|
ref
|
|
|
|
Q2
|
1.05 (0.91, 1.22)
|
0.79 (0.6, 1.02)
|
0.89 (0.51, 1.56)
|
1.24 (0.61, 2.53)
|
Q3
|
1.07 (0.87, 1.33)
|
0.94 (0.64, 1.39)
|
1.04 (0.76, 1.44)
|
1.26 (0.74, 2.17)
|
Q4
|
1.08 (0.9, 1.29)
|
0.88 (0.69, 1.08)
|
1.01 (0.75, 1.35)
|
0.84 (0.34, 2.09)
|
aAll model were adjusted for age, sex, urbanity, and wealth index. |
**p-value < 0.001, *p-value < 0.05 |
Table 7
Linear relationship between children’s anthropometric measurements and Food Group factors
|
|
B-coefficient (95% CI)
|
|
Food Groups
|
Height (m) a
|
Weight (kg) a
|
BMI (kg/m2) a
|
Age
|
5.11(4.97, 5.26)**
|
2.59 (2.43, 2.75)**
|
0.27 (0.21, 0.33)**
|
Sex
|
1.48 (0.96, 2.00)**
|
0.47 (-0.04, 0.99)
|
-0.13 (-0.34, 0.08)
|
Urbanity
|
0.28 (-0.28, 0.83)
|
-0.03 (-0.53, 0.47)
|
-0.08 (-0.29, 0.12)
|
Wealth Index
|
2.13 (1.80, 2.46)**
|
2.20 (1.85, 2.54)**
|
0.71 (0.57, 0.85)**
|
All Meat (g)
|
0.01 (0.004, 0.01)**
|
0.01 (0.01, 0.01)**
|
0.004 (0.001, 0.01)**
|
All Milk consumer
|
0.77 (0.02, 1.52)*
|
0.58 (-0.22, 1.38)
|
0.24 (-0.10, 0.58)
|
Fruits consumer
|
-0.14 (-0.86, 0.58)
|
-0.15 (-0.80, 0.50)
|
-0.03 (-0.29, 0.24)
|
Beans, Nuts, and Peas consumer
|
-0.79 (-1.88, 0.29)
|
-0.79 (-1.79, 0.21)
|
-0.29 (-0.67, 0.09)
|
All Grains (g)
|
0.01 (0.01, 0.01)**
|
0.01 (0.01, 0.01)**
|
0.003 (0.002, 0.004)**
|
Sweets (g)
|
0.002 (0.001, 0.004)*
|
0.003 (0.001, 0.01)*
|
0.001 (0.0005, 0.002)*
|
Fats and Oils (g)
|
-0.01 (-0.05, 0.03)
|
-0.004 (-0.03, 0.02)
|
0.00 (-0.01, 0.02)
|
aAll model were adjusted for age, sex, urbanity, and wealth index. |
**p-value < 0.001, *p-value < 0.05 |
Table 8
Linear relationship between children’s anthropometric measurements and dietary factors
|
|
B-coefficient (95% CI)
|
|
Nutrients
|
Height (m) a
|
Weight (kg) a
|
BMI (kg/m2) a
|
Age
|
5.24 (5.15, 5.34)**
|
2.79 (2.70, 2.89)**
|
0.38 (0.35, 0.42)**
|
Sex
|
1.38 (1.01, 1.74)**
|
0.65 (0.32, 0.98)**
|
0.01 (-0.12, 0.15)
|
Urbanity
|
0.25 (-0.14, 0.63)
|
-0.05 (-0.40, 0.29)
|
-0.13 (-0.28, 0.01)
|
Wealth Index
|
2.16 (1.94, 2.39)**
|
1.95 (1.73, 2.17)**
|
0.57 (0.48, 0.66)**
|
Utilizable Protein
|
0.07 (0.05, 0.09)**
|
0.10 (0.07, 0.12)**
|
0.04 (0.03, 0.05)**
|
Calcium
|
0.004 (0.0005, 0.01)*
|
0.001 (-0.002, 0.004)
|
-0.001 (-0.002, 0.001)
|
Vitamin D
|
0.48 (0.05, 0.90)*
|
0.37 (-0.07, 0.81)
|
0.09 (-0.09, 0.26)
|
Vitamin B12
|
-0.49 (-0.84, -0.14)*
|
-0.35 (-0.67, -0.03)*
|
-0.10 (-0.24, 0.03)
|
Riboflavin
|
-0.17 (-1.53, 1.20)
|
-1.00 (-2.32, 0.32)
|
-0.40 (-0.94, 0.15)
|
Thiamin
|
0.82 (-0.31, 1.96)
|
0.71 (-0.37, 1.78)
|
0.25 (-0.21, 0.71)
|
Fiber
|
-0.01 (-0.15, 0.12)
|
0.05 (-0.09, 0.19)
|
0.03 (-0.03, 0.08)
|
Vitamin C
|
0.01 (-0.02, 0.03)
|
0.04 (0.002, 0.07)*
|
0.02 (0.002, 0.03)*
|
Vitamin A RE
|
-0.0002 (-0.002, 0.002)
|
-0.001 (-0.003, 0.0004)
|
-0.001 (-0.001, 0.0002)
|
aAll model were adjusted for age, sex, urbanity, and wealth index.
**p-value < 0.001, *p-value < 0.05