7.1. Results
7.1.1. Research Question One: what factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system in the Cambodian educational system?
The investigation revealed that most participants identified five primary factors contributing to the prevalence of shadow education in the Cambodian educational system. These include inadequate formal education, insufficient resources, high parental expectations, regulatory gaps, and low teacher salaries. One respondent shared his experience, noting that:
"I have personally observed several critical issues within the Cambodian public education system, including underqualified teachers, large class sizes, and insufficient resources. Due to shortages of teachers and inadequate infrastructure, many public schools in Cambodia operate only half-day sessions, either in the morning or the afternoon. This leads to overcrowded classrooms, making it challenging for students to achieve significant academic progress with just a few hours of instruction each day. Consequently, these deficiencies can compromise the quality of education, forcing parents to turn to private tutoring to enhance their children’s learning. Lacking confidence in the educational services provided by public schools, some parents opt to hire teachers for home instruction, while others send their children to private tutorial schools, often taught by the same teachers who work in the public system." (P6).
The primary finding of the research highlights the role of Cambodian parents' expectations and cultural values, which emphasize academic excellence for their children. This cultural pressure often leads parents to enroll their children in supplementary tutoring to enhance their chances of success in a highly competitive educational environment. Education is highly valued in Cambodian culture as a means of achieving upward mobility. This emphasis encourages families to seek any educational advantage, including private tutoring, which is viewed as an investment in a child’s future and reflects a deep-seated belief in the transformative power of education. Students in urban areas, particularly in cities like Battambang, Pursat, and Banteay Meanchey, have greater access to high-quality private tutoring services than those in rural or remote areas. The disparity in access is partly due to the concentration of tutoring centers in urban areas, where there is both a higher demand and greater financial capability to afford such services. One respondent noted that:
"Cambodian families with higher incomes are more likely to invest in private supplementary tutoring for their children. This investment stems from the belief that such 'shadow education' provides a competitive advantage in national examinations, which are key to gaining admission to prestigious schools and universities. The ability to afford these services deepens educational inequalities by favoring students from wealthier families who can access extensive tutoring. In contrast, poorer students struggle to afford these supplementary classes and must rely on the limited offerings of public schools." (P 18).
In addition, the Cambodian educational system is based on an examination-driven curriculum that heavily focuses on rote learning and success in standardized examinations. This system places significant pressure on students to seek additional coaching specifically tailored to help them excel in these exams, thereby contributing to the demand for shadow education. One of the respondents stated that:
"Most parents encourage their children to study Khmer literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, as these are considered the most challenging subjects essential for achieving high grades in national exams for both lower and upper secondary schools. Particularly at the upper secondary level, achieving a grade A can led to university scholarships and awards from Cambodian political elites at both provincial and national levels. Students who excel often receive gifts from our Prime Minister." (P7).
The most obvious finding is that the lack of stringent regulations and quality control over private tutoring allows for significant variance in the quality and effectiveness of tutoring services. This insufficient oversight not only perpetuates the prevalence of shadow education but also poses challenges in ensuring that it positively contributes to students’ education, rather than merely exploiting parental anxieties and aspirations for commercial gain. These factors often lead to a scenario where wealthier, urban, and more educated families are able to utilize shadow education more effectively, further entrenching educational and social disparities. Conversely, lower-income, rural families, despite valuing education highly, often struggle to provide the same level of supplementary education to their children due to financial and geographical constraints. One respondent shared his personal experience:
“Even though regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport exist, they seem ineffective because teachers who violate these laws and regulations are not fined or punished at either the school or ministerial levels. Violating teachers continue to offer illegal supplementary classes to their students, both inside and outside of regular classes” (P21).
Furthermore, teachers' low salaries are one of the factors impacting private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. The royal government has increased teachers' monthly salaries and benefits to between USD 350 and USD 550. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving the quality of public education, ensuring equitable access to resources, and implementing rigorous regulatory frameworks for private tutoring. By understanding these socioeconomic and cultural factors, parents and educators can work towards a more equitable educational landscape that reduces the reliance on private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. One participant explained:
"Based on my personal experience and observations, government salaries in Cambodia remain low compared to those in other ASEAN countries. Consequently, many teachers cannot cover their daily expenses, especially those necessary to maintain social dignity in a civilized society. To supplement their income, some teachers take on secondary positions at private schools and only occasionally attend their public-school classes. Others charge students personal fees for full access to the school curriculum. This places students who cannot afford these fees at a disadvantage, limiting their educational opportunities. Therefore, many teachers feel they have no choice but to offer extra classes to manage their living costs and health care expenses (P 15).
7.1.2 Research Question Two: What are challenges that associated with shadow education in Cambodia?
The research has shown that engagement in shadow education in Cambodia poses significant academic and psychological challenges for students and their families. To address these challenges effectively, it's crucial to understand the diverse impacts that private supplementary tutoring has on the various stakeholders involved. Firstly, students may develop an excessive reliance on private tutors to grasp fundamental concepts, hindering their ability to learn independently. This reliance undermines the cultivation of critical thinking and self-study skills, potentially impeding their long-term academic progress.
Moreover, discrepancies between the content provided by private tutors and the school curriculum can lead to confusion and misalignment in students' understanding of academic material. Such discrepancies may result in conflicts in learning strategies and outcomes. Additionally, the extra hours spent in tutoring sessions, beyond regular school hours, amplify the academic workload and pressure on students. Intensive tutoring, focused primarily on rote learning and exam preparation, can induce stress and burnout among students, exacerbated by high expectations to excel in examinations driven by parental pressure and the competitive educational environment.
Consequently, students may experience significant stress and anxiety, with the additional burden of supplementary classes further impacting their mental health and well-being. This engagement often sacrifices students' leisure time, limiting opportunities for holistic development and social interactions, thereby affecting their overall happiness and quality of life. Moreover, there exists a cultural and social expectation to participate in tutoring, potentially stigmatizing students who are unable or unwilling to do so. This stigma can foster feelings of inadequacy or social isolation, particularly among students already facing academic struggles or hailing from less affluent backgrounds. In summary, the multifaceted impacts of shadow education on students and their families underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to addressing its challenges. One respondent noted:
"As a school principal, I have observed that students from disadvantaged backgrounds often perform poorly academically because they cannot fully access the curriculum and engage in practical learning with their teachers and peers. These students tend to be psychologically affected and feel isolated from their classmates. In Cambodian culture, there is a noticeable hesitancy among poorer students to interact with their wealthier peers, leading to a higher dropout rate. To address this issue, I consistently advise my teachers to adhere to the professional code of conduct and to encourage students to actively participate in their classes. This involvement is crucial for their future prospects and the development of our country (P1)."
Additionally, students and parents face financial challenges related to the burden of private tutoring, with many families allocating a significant portion of their income to afford these services. This financial strain can impact the overall family budget, constraining spending on other essential needs such as healthcare, nutrition, and recreational activities. The cost of private tutoring exacerbates economic disparities, as only families with sufficient financial resources can afford high-quality tutoring. Consequently, this disparity reinforces educational inequities, as economically disadvantaged students have limited access to supplementary educational resources. For many families, sustaining the ongoing cost of private tutoring proves challenging, especially when multiple children in the family require such services. This long-term financial commitment can lead to debt or financial insecurity. One participant shared:
"Based on my experiences at my school, some parents have faced financial difficulties and incurred debts due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis; as a result, they lack the budget to afford their children's supplementary courses. Additionally, some parents have expressed concerns to the principal and school leaders about teachers' performance and perceived discrimination. The Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport frequently advises school leaders and teachers to avoid unnecessary supplementary classes, the sale of lessons, and other forms of corruption that could negatively impact educational quality and the school's reputation." (P15).
Therefore, the challenges associated with shadow education in Cambodia are multifaceted, impacting students and families academically, psychologically, and financially. Addressing these challenges necessitates comprehensive policy interventions aimed at reducing the academic pressure linked to examinations, establishing support systems for students' mental health, and ensuring more equitable access to quality education. Implementing such measures could help alleviate the adverse effects of private supplementary tutoring and foster a more balanced and inclusive educational environment.
7.1.3. Research Question Three: which existing policies and regulations have been effective in managing the issues of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, and what additional measures could be implemented to enhance their effectiveness?
Based on the findings, it's evident that existing policies and regulations in Cambodia regarding private supplementary tutoring require enhancement to improve their effectiveness. Cambodia has various policies and regulations in place, including the Child-friendly School Policy, Lifelong Learning Policy, Inclusive Education Policy, Teacher Policy, National Policy on Child Protection System 2019–2029, Curriculum Framework of General Education and Technical Education, Cambodian Sustainable Development Goals (CSDGs) framework (2016–2023), School-based Management (SBM) Policy, Reform Strategy on Education, Youth, and Sport (2018–2023), New Generation School Policy, sub-decree on Teacher’s Professional Code, Model School Standards, and Educational Law. Additionally, a ministerial declaration dated May 7, 2024, addressed concerns about students’ supplementary courses, emphasizing the need for teachers to fulfill their duties assigned by school principals with provisions of equity, inclusivity, and professionalism in educational services. However, the effectiveness of these regulations is mixed, with licensing ensuring a minimum standard but significant gaps persisting in enforcement and monitoring, allowing many tutoring operations to operate informally without adherence to regulations and escaping governmental oversight.
Moreover, additional measures could be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of these regulations. Time restrictions, often not strictly enforced, result in students spending extended hours in tutoring sessions after school, contributing to stress and reduced personal time. Enhancing funding and capabilities for relevant regulatory bodies could address this issue. Implementing a standardized assessment system for tutoring centers, including regular inspections and student feedback mechanisms, can ensure educational quality and consistency. Educating parents and students about the potential downsides of excessive tutoring and promoting the benefits of holistic education could help shift cultural perceptions that overly emphasize rote learning. Policies encouraging better integration between school curricula and tutoring sessions' content would require collaboration between the Ministry of Education, schools, and private tutoring providers.
Furthermore, the Royal Government of Cambodia providing financial aid for low-income families could alleviate the economic burden of tutoring, making supplementary education more accessible and equitable. Extending regulations to cover online tutoring services, ensuring data privacy, content quality, and limiting advertising directed at children, is crucial with the rise of digital education platforms. Community-based tutoring programs, either free or low-cost, could provide alternatives to commercial private tutoring, supported by civil society, local government initiatives, and development partners. Enhancing the regulatory framework and introducing these additional measures would enable Cambodia to better manage the challenges posed by private supplementary tutoring. This approach would not only maintain educational equity but also ensure that private tutoring complements the formal education system rather than undermining it.
7.2. Discussion
The research findings indicate that shadow education in Cambodia presents challenges that academically and psychologically impact students and families. This observation aligns with the study by Zhang & Gao (2023), which highlights similar academic and psychological challenges associated with private tutoring, emphasizing its significance not only for students but also for tutors, as noted by Bray et al. (2019). However, such practices can negatively affect children's self-esteem and contribute to a culture of intense competition (Chhun, 2017; Gürel & Brummelman, 2020). It is essential to remember that while pursuing educational success is important, it should not come at the expense of children's physical, mental, and emotional well-being.
The Royal Government of Cambodia has made commendable efforts to reduce reliance on private tutoring through initiatives like the New Generation Schools (NGS). The NGS initiative, in particular, aims to decrease teachers' involvement in shadow education. However, despite these efforts, persistent quality issues in schools and ongoing examination pressures have not fully curbed the demand for private tutoring (Nhem, 2022). Studies by Choi (2014), Jamil (2014), and Ngel (2022) have identified a deep respect for teachers and their achievements, suggesting that enhancing teacher status could positively influence educational dynamics.
Moreover, research by Dawson (2010) underscores the broader implications of private tutoring, extending beyond individual academic success to influence societal values and expectations. This supports the idea that systemic changes in educational policy and school practices could alleviate some pressures fueling the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the OECD report (2017) notes that high levels of anxiety among students in systems heavily reliant on private tutoring can detract from overall student well-being, reinforcing the need for balanced educational approaches that prioritize student welfare alongside academic achievement. To this end, policy interventions could focus on enhancing intrinsic motivation within students and fostering an environment that values holistic development, as suggested by Vora (2019) and Chim & Soeung (2023). These advocates for educational reforms emphasize the need to diminish academic pressure and promote holistic growth. By adopting these broader strategies, we can work towards an educational system that supports both the intellectual and emotional needs of students, ensuring a healthier approach to learning and development.